Calculus 2 formula

Here, a list of differential calculus formulas is given below: Integral Calculus Formulas The basic use of integration is to add the slices and make it into a whole thing. In other words, integration is the process of continuous addition and the variable "C" represents the constant of integration.

Calculus 2 formula. This course covers vector and multi-variable calculus. It is the second semester in the freshman calculus sequence. Topics include vectors and matrices, partial derivatives, double and triple integrals, and vector calculus in 2 and 3-space. MIT OpenCourseWare offers another version of 18.02, from the Spring 2006 term. Both versions cover the same …

This calculus 2 video tutorial provides a basic introduction into series. It explains how to determine the convergence and divergence of a series. It expla...

Integration Formulas 1. Common Integrals Indefinite Integral Method of substitution ... Integrals of Rational and Irrational Functions 1 1 n x dx Cn x n + = + ∫ + 1 dx x Cln x ∫ = + ∫cdx cx C= + 2 2 xThere is a variety of ways of denoting a sequence. Each of the following are equivalent ways of denoting a sequence. {a1, a2, …, an, an + 1, …} {an} {an}∞ n = 1 In the second and third notations above an is usually given by …At present I've gotten the notes/tutorials for my Algebra (Math 1314), Calculus I (Math 2413), Calculus II (Math 2414), Calculus III (Math 2415) and Differential Equations (Math 3301) class online. I've also got a couple of Review/Extras available as well.As a new parent, you have many important decisions to make. One is to choose whether to breastfeed your baby or bottle feed using infant formula. As a new parent, you have many important decisions to make. One is to choose whether to breast...Ai = 2π(f(xi) + f(xi − 1) 2)|Pi − 1 Pi| ≈ 2πf(x ∗ i)√1 + [f ′ (x ∗ i)]2 Δx The surface area of the whole solid is then approximately, S ≈ n ∑ i = 12πf(x ∗ i)√1 + [f ′ (x ∗ i)]2 Δx and we can get the exact surface area by taking the limit as n goes to infinity. S = lim n → ∞ n ∑ i = 12πf(x ∗ i)√1 + [f ′ (x ∗ i)]2 Δx = ∫b a2πf(x)√1 + [f ′ (x)]2dxTo see how we use partial sums to evaluate infinite series, consider the following example. Suppose oil is seeping into a lake such that 1000 1000 gallons enters the lake the first week. During the second week, an additional 500 500 gallons of oil enters the lake. The third week, 250 250 more gallons enters the lake. Assume this pattern continues such that each …

This formula is, L =∫ d c √1 +[h′(y)]2dy =∫ d c √1 +( dx dy)2 dy L = ∫ c d 1 + [ h ′ ( y)] 2 d y = ∫ c d 1 + ( d x d y) 2 d y. Again, the second form is probably a little more convenient. Note the difference in the derivative under the square root! Don’t get too confused.Here, a list of differential calculus formulas is given below: Integral Calculus Formulas The basic use of integration is to add the slices and make it into a whole thing. In other words, integration is the process of continuous addition and the variable "C" represents the constant of integration.Let’s now use this formula to calculate the surface area of each of the bands formed by revolving the line segments around the \(x-axis\). A representative band is shown in the following figure. ... and …Arc Length = ∫b a√1 + [f′ (x)]2dx. Note that we are integrating an expression involving f′ (x), so we need to be sure f′ (x) is integrable. This is why we require f(x) to be smooth. The following example shows how to apply the theorem. Example 6.4.1: Calculating the Arc Length of a Function of x. Let f(x) = 2x3 / 2.Calculus Summary Formulas. Differentiation Formulas. 1. 1. )( −. = n n nx x dx d. 17 ... 18. θ θ π cos. ) 2 sin( =−. Page 3. Integration Formulas. Definition of ...Here is a summary for the sine trig substitution. √a2 − b2x2 ⇒ x = a bsinθ, − π 2 ≤ θ ≤ π 2. There is one final case that we need to look at. The next integral will also contain something that we need to make sure we can deal with. Example 5 Evaluate the following integral. ∫ 1 60 x5 (36x2 + 1)3 2 dx. Show Solution.Here is a summary for the sine trig substitution. √a2 − b2x2 ⇒ x = a bsinθ, − π 2 ≤ θ ≤ π 2. There is one final case that we need to look at. The next integral will also contain something that we need to make sure we can deal with. Example 5 Evaluate the following integral. ∫ 1 60 x5 (36x2 + 1)3 2 dx. Show Solution.

22 maj 2003 ... Theorem 11.5.7 The graph of every linear equation ax + by + cz + d = 0 is a plane with normal vector (a, b, c) ...Calculus 2 | Math | Khan Academy Calculus 2 6 units · 105 skills Unit 1 Integrals review Unit 2 Integration techniques Unit 3 Differential equations Unit 4 Applications of integrals Unit 5 Parametric equations, polar coordinates, and vector-valued functions Unit 6 Series Course challenge Test your knowledge of the skills in this course.calculus. (From Latin calculus, literally 'small pebble', used for counting and calculations, as on an abacus) [8] is the mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. Cavalieri's principle.Compute A ( 1 ) and A ( 2 ) exactly. 🔗. Use the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find a formula for ...At present I've gotten the notes/tutorials for my Algebra (Math 1314), Calculus I (Math 2413), Calculus II (Math 2414), Calculus III (Math 2415) and Differential Equations (Math 3301) class online. I've also got a couple of Review/Extras available as well.How to find a formula for an inverse function · Logarithms as Inverse ... Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Part 2): If f is continuous on [a,b], and F′(x)=f(x) ...

Can you cook with wild onions.

The volume is 78π / 5units3. Exercise 6.2.2. Use the method of slicing to find the volume of the solid of revolution formed by revolving the region between the graph of the function f(x) = 1 / x and the x-axis over the interval [1, 2] around the x-axis. See the following figure.Calculus, branch of mathematics concerned with instantaneous rates of change and the summation of infinitely many small factors. ... This simplifies to gt + gh/2 and is called the difference quotient of the function gt 2 /2. As h approaches 0, this formula approaches gt, ...Jul 19, 2018 - Explore Marlon Rooy's board "Calculus 2" on Pinterest. See more ideas about calculus, math methods, math formulas.Section 10.16 : Taylor Series. In the previous section we started looking at writing down a power series representation of a function. The problem with the approach in that section is that everything came down to needing to be able to relate the function in some way to

2.9 Equations Reducible to Quadratic in Form; 2.10 Equations with Radicals; 2.11 Linear Inequalities; 2.12 Polynomial Inequalities; 2.13 Rational Inequalities; 2.14 Absolute Value Equations; 2.15 Absolute Value Inequalities; 3. Graphing and Functions. 3.1 Graphing; 3.2 Lines; 3.3 Circles; 3.4 The Definition of a Function; 3.5 Graphing Functions ...If these values tend to some definite unique number as x tends to a, then that obtained a unique number is called the limit of f (x) at x = a. We can write it. limx→a f(x) For example. limx→2 f(x) = 5. Here, as x approaches 2, the limit of the function f (x) will be 5i.e. f (x) approaches 5. The value of the function which is limited and ...Here, a list of differential calculus formulas is given below: Integral Calculus Formulas The basic use of integration is to add the slices and make it into a whole thing. In other words, integration is the process of continuous addition and the variable "C" represents the constant of integration.In a first course in Physics you typically look at the work that a constant force, F F, does when moving an object over a distance of d d. In these cases the work is, W =F d W = F d. However, most forces are not constant and will depend upon where exactly the force is acting. So, let’s suppose that the force at any x x is given by F (x) F ( x).Average velocity is the result of dividing the distance an object travels by the time it takes to travel that far. The formula for calculating average velocity is therefore: final position – initial position/final time – original time, or [...2 = a+2∆x x 3 = a+3∆x... x n = a+n∆x =b. Define R n = f(x 1)·∆x+ f(x 2)·∆x+...+ f(x n)·∆x. ("R" stands for "right-hand", since we are using the right hand endpoints of the little rectangles.) Definition 1.1.1 — Area.The area A of the region S that lies under the graph of the continuousCreated Date: 3/16/2008 2:13:01 PMCalculus 2 Formula Sheet The Area of a Region Between Two Curves. Suppose that f and g are continuous functions with f (x) ≥ g (x) on the... Area of a Region Between Two Curves with Respect to y. Suppose that f and g are continuous functions with f (y) ≥ g (y)... General Slicing Method. Suppose a ...Math Calculus 2 Unit 6: Series 2,000 possible mastery points Mastered Proficient Familiar Attempted Not started Quiz Unit test Convergent and divergent infinite series Learn Convergent and divergent sequences Worked example: sequence convergence/divergence Partial sums intro Partial sums: formula for nth term from partial sum MATH 10560: CALCULUS II TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS Basic Identities The functions cos(θ) and sin(θ) are defined to be the x and y coordinates of the point at an angle of θ

Limits intro. Google Classroom. Limits describe how a function behaves near a point, instead of at that point. This simple yet powerful idea is the basis of all of calculus. To understand what limits are, let's look at an example. We start with the function f ( x) = x + 2 .

This calculus video tutorial focuses on volumes of revolution. It explains how to calculate the volume of a solid generated by rotating a region around the ...Changing the starting point ("a") would change the area by a constant, and the derivative of a constant is zero. Another way to answer is that in the proof of the fundamental theorem, which is …There are many important trig formulas that you will use occasionally in a calculus class. Most notably are the half-angle and double-angle formulas. If you need reminded of what these are, you might want to download my Trig Cheat Sheet as most of the important facts and formulas from a trig class are listed there.Explanation: . Write the formula for cylindrical shells, where is the shell radius and is the shell height. Determine the shell radius. Determine the shell height. This is done by subtracting the right curve, , with the left curve, . Find the intersection of and to determine the y-bounds of the integral. The bounds will be from 0 to 2.2.1. More about Areas 50 2.2. Volumes 52 2.3. Arc Length, Parametric Curves 57 2.4. Average Value of a Function (Mean Value Theorem) 61 2.5. Applications to Physics and Engineering 63 2.6. Probability 69 Chapter 3. Differential Equations 74 3.1. Differential Equations and Separable Equations 74 3.2. Directional Fields and Euler’s Method 78 3.3.We start by using line segments to approximate the curve, as we did earlier in this section. For [latex]i=0,1,2\text{,…},n,[/latex] let [latex]P=\left\{{x ... Let’s now use this formula to calculate the surface area of each of the bands ... [/latex] Those of you who are interested in the details should consult an advanced calculus ...Section 7.10 : Approximating Definite Integrals. In this chapter we’ve spent quite a bit of time on computing the values of integrals. However, not all integrals can be computed. A perfect example is the following definite integral. ∫ 2 0 ex2dx ∫ 0 2 e x 2 d x.1 maj 2019 ... The formula sheet below will be attached to the exam and contains trig. identities needed for certain kinds of integrals. There will be one ...Example: Rearrange the volume of a box formula ( V = lwh) so that the width is the subject. Start with: V = lwh. divide both sides by h: V/h = lw. divide both sides by l: V/ (hl) = w. swap sides: w = V/ (hl) So if we want a box with a volume of 12, a length of 2, and a height of 2, we can calculate its width: w = V/ (hl)Calculus 2 6 units · 105 skills. Unit 1 Integrals review. Unit 2 Integration techniques. Unit 3 Differential equations. Unit 4 Applications of integrals. Unit 5 Parametric equations, polar coordinates, and vector-valued functions. Unit 6 Series. Course challenge. Test your knowledge of the skills in this course.

What is induced seismicity.

Does energy have matter.

Here, a list of differential calculus formulas is given below: Integral Calculus Formulas The basic use of integration is to add the slices and make it into a whole thing. In other words, integration is the process of continuous addition and the variable "C" represents the constant of integration.because it involves an integral, even though it represents the same function. Given an integral ∫ f(x)dx, then, our goal will be to find an elementary formula ...And hence, there are infinite functions whose derivative is equal to 3x 2. C is called an arbitrary constant. It is sometimes also referred to as the constant of integration. Integral Calculus Formulas. Similar to differentiation formulas, we have integral formulas as well. Let us go ahead and look at some of the integral calculus formulas.2.9 Equations Reducible to Quadratic in Form; 2.10 Equations with Radicals; 2.11 Linear Inequalities; 2.12 Polynomial Inequalities; 2.13 Rational Inequalities; 2.14 Absolute Value Equations; 2.15 Absolute Value Inequalities; 3. Graphing and Functions. 3.1 Graphing; 3.2 Lines; 3.3 Circles; 3.4 The Definition of a Function; 3.5 Graphing Functions ...MATH 10560: CALCULUS II TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS Basic Identities The functions cos(θ) and sin(θ) are defined to be the x and y coordinates of the point at an angle of θ2. fa¢( ) is the instantaneous rate of change of fx( ) at xa= . 3. If fx( ) is the position of an object at time x then fa¢( ) is the velocity of the object at xa= . Basic Properties and Formulas If fx( ) and gx( ) are differentiable functions (the derivative exists), c and n are any real numbers, 1. (cf)¢ = cfx¢() 2. (f–g)¢ =–f ...The Differential Calculus splits up an area into small parts to calculate the rate of change.The Integral calculus joins small parts to calculates the area or volume and in short, is the method of reasoning or calculation.In this page, you can see a list of Calculus Formulas such as integral formula, derivative formula, limits formula etc. Since …Let’s now use this formula to calculate the surface area of each of the bands formed by revolving the line segments around the \(x-axis\). A representative band is shown in the following figure. ... and …Maximum and Minimum : 2 Variables : Given a function f(x,y) : The discriminant : D = f xx f yy - f xy 2; Decision : For a critical point P= (a,b) If D(a,b) > 0 and f xx (a,b) < 0 then f has a rel-Maximum at P. If D(a,b) > 0 and f xx (a,b) > 0 then f has a rel-Minimum at P. If D(a,b) < 0 then f has a saddle point at P.Average Function Value. The average value of a continuous function f (x) f ( x) over the interval [a,b] [ a, b] is given by, f avg = 1 b−a ∫ b a f (x) dx f a v g = 1 b − a ∫ a b f ( x) d x. To see a justification of this formula see the Proof of Various Integral Properties section of the Extras chapter. Let’s work a couple of quick ... ….

Compute A ( 1 ) and A ( 2 ) exactly. 🔗. Use the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find a formula for ...Created Date: 3/16/2008 2:13:01 PMThis 557-lesson course includes video and text explanations of everything from Calculus 2, and it includes 180 quizzes (with solutions!) and an additional 20 workbooks with extra practice problems, to help you test your understanding along the way. Become a Calculus 2 Master is organized into the following sections:We start by using line segments to approximate the curve, as we did earlier in this section. For [latex]i=0,1,2\text{,…},n,[/latex] let [latex]P=\left\{{x ... Let’s now use this formula to calculate the surface area of each of the bands ... [/latex] Those of you who are interested in the details should consult an advanced calculus ...9 dhj 2015 ... These are notes for three lectures on differential equations for my Calculus II course at the University of Oklahoma in Fall 2015. Please ...calculus, and then covers the one-variable Taylor’s Theorem in detail. Chapters 2 and 3 coverwhat might be called multivariable pre-calculus, in- troducing the requisite algebra, geometry, analysis, and topology of EuclideanCalculus deals with two themes: taking di erences and summing things up. Di erences measure how data change, sums quantify how quantities accumulate. ... Can we get a formula for the function g? 1.7. The new function g satis es g(1) = 1;g(2) = 3;g(3) = 6, etc. These numbers are called triangular numbers. From the function g we can get f back by ...In 1997, a group of three of us worked to develop workshops in support of Calculus 2 lectures. ... j) Use the formula of i) to help determine which critical ...Section 7.10 : Approximating Definite Integrals. In this chapter we’ve spent quite a bit of time on computing the values of integrals. However, not all integrals can be computed. A perfect example is the following definite integral. ∫ 2 0 ex2dx ∫ 0 2 e x 2 d x. Calculus 2 formula, Calculus. Find the Derivative - d/dx (d^2y)/ (dx^2) d2y dx2 d 2 y d x 2. Cancel the common factor of d2 d 2 and d d. Tap for more steps... d dx [dy x2] d d x [ d y x 2] Since dy d y is constant with respect to x x, the derivative of dy x2 d y x 2 with respect to x x is dy d dx[ 1 x2] d y d d x [ 1 x 2]. dy d dx [ 1 x2] d y d d x [ 1 x 2], Method 1 : Use the method used in Finding Absolute Extrema. This is the method used in the first example above. Recall that in order to use this method the interval of possible values of the independent variable in the function we are optimizing, let’s call it I I, must have finite endpoints. Also, the function we’re optimizing (once it’s ..., The instantaneous rate of change of the function at a point is equal to the slope of the tangent line at that point. The first derivative of a function f f at some given point a a is denoted by f’ (a) f ’(a). This expression is read aloud as “the derivative of f f evaluated at a a ” or “ f f prime at a a .”. The expression f’ (x ..., Integration Techniques - In this chapter we will look at several integration techniques including Integration by Parts, Integrals Involving Trig Functions, Trig Substitutions and Partial Fractions. We will also look at Improper Integrals including using the Comparison Test for convergence/divergence of improper integrals., The integration formulas have been broadly presented as the following sets of formulas. The formulas include basic integration formulas, integration of trigonometric ratios, inverse trigonometric functions, the product of functions, and some advanced set of integration formulas.Basically, integration is a way of uniting the part to find a whole. It …, Calculus Examples. Step-by-Step Examples. Calculus. Business Calculus. Find Elasticity of Demand. p = 25 − 0.3q p = 25 - 0.3 q , q = 50 q = 50. To find elasticity of demand, use the formula E = ∣∣ ∣p q dq dp ∣∣ ∣ E = | p q d q d p |. Substitute 50 50 for q q in p = 25−0.3q p = 25 - 0.3 q and simplify to find p p., Calculus Midterm 2. Flashcard Maker ... Sample Decks: Linear Algebra II Axioms, Operational Research Notes, Multivariable Calculus Formulas., This 557-lesson course includes video and text explanations of everything from Calculus 2, and it includes 180 quizzes (with solutions!) and an additional 20 workbooks with extra practice problems, to help you test your understanding along the way. Become a Calculus 2 Master is organized into the following sections:, Math Calculus 2 Unit 6: Series 2,000 possible mastery points Mastered Proficient Familiar Attempted Not started Quiz Unit test Convergent and divergent infinite series Learn Convergent and divergent sequences Worked example: sequence convergence/divergence Partial sums intro Partial sums: formula for nth term from partial sum, So, the sequence converges for r = 1 and in this case its limit is 1. Case 3 : 0 < r < 1. We know from Calculus I that lim x → ∞rx = 0 if 0 < r < 1 and so by Theorem 1 above we also know that lim n → ∞rn = 0 and so the sequence converges if 0 < r < 1 and in this case its limit is zero. Case 4 : r = 0., Find the equation for the tangent line to a curve by finding the derivative of the equation for the curve, then using that equation to find the slope of the tangent line at a given point. Finding the equation for the tangent line requires a..., Calculus 3e (Apex) 7: Applications of Integration 7.6: Fluid Forces Expand/collapse global location ... Knowing the formulas found inside the special boxes within this chapter is beneficial as it helps solve problems found in the exercises, ..., Let's take the sum of the product of this expression and dx, and this is essential. This is the formula for arc length. The formula for arc length. This looks complicated. In the next video, we'll see there's actually fairly straight forward to …, CALCULUS II (GENEL MATEMATİK II) Anasayfa; Akademik; Fakülteler; Dersler - AKTS Kredileri; Calculus II (Genel Matematik II) ... Haftalar: Türevin uygulamaları, birinci ve ikinci …, These methods allow us to at least get an approximate value which may be enough in a lot of cases. In this chapter we will look at several integration techniques including Integration by Parts, Integrals Involving Trig Functions, Trig Substitutions and Partial Fractions. We will also look at Improper Integrals including using the Comparison ..., History of calculus. Calculus, originally called infinitesimal calculus, is a mathematical discipline focused on limits, continuity, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series. Many elements of calculus appeared in ancient Greece, then in China and the Middle East, and still later again in medieval Europe and in India., 2.3 Trig Formulas; 2.4 Solving Trig Equations; 2.5 Inverse Trig Functions; 3. Exponentials & Logarithms. 3.1 Basic Exponential Functions ... when I first learned Calculus my teacher used the spelling that I use in these notes and the first text book that I taught Calculus out of also used the spelling that I use here. Also, as noted on the ..., Explore math with our beautiful, free online graphing calculator. Graph functions, plot points, visualize algebraic equations, add sliders, animate graphs, and more., Calculus is a branch of mathematics that studies phenomena involving change along dimensions, such as time, force, mass, length and temperature., Calculus 2 6 units · 105 skills. Unit 1 Integrals review. Unit 2 Integration techniques. Unit 3 Differential equations. Unit 4 Applications of integrals. Unit 5 Parametric equations, polar coordinates, and vector-valued functions. Unit 6 Series. Course challenge. Test your knowledge of the skills in this course., puting Riemann sums using xi = (xi−1 + xi)/2 = midpoint of each interval as sample point. This yields the following approximation for the value of a definite integral: Z b a f(x)dx ≈ Xn i=1 …, The following example lets us practice using the Right Hand Rule and the summation formulas introduced in Theorem 5.3.1. Example 5.3.4: Approximating definite integrals using sums. Approximate ∫4 0(4x − x2)dx using the Right Hand Rule and summation formulas with 16 and 1000 equally spaced intervals. Solution., Ai = 2π(f(xi) + f(xi − 1) 2)|Pi − 1 Pi| ≈ 2πf(x ∗ i)√1 + [f ′ (x ∗ i)]2 Δx The surface area of the whole solid is then approximately, S ≈ n ∑ i = 12πf(x ∗ i)√1 + [f ′ (x ∗ i)]2 Δx and we can get the exact surface area by taking the limit as n goes to infinity. S = lim n → ∞ n ∑ i = 12πf(x ∗ i)√1 + [f ′ (x ∗ i)]2 Δx = ∫b a2πf(x)√1 + [f ′ (x)]2dx, Here is a set of notes used by Paul Dawkins to teach his Calculus I course at Lamar University. Included are detailed discussions of Limits (Properties, Computing, One-sided, Limits at Infinity, Continuity), Derivatives (Basic Formulas, Product/Quotient/Chain Rules L'Hospitals Rule, Increasing/Decreasing/Concave Up/Concave Down, Related …, CALCULUS II (GENEL MATEMATİK II) Anasayfa; Akademik; Fakülteler; Dersler - AKTS Kredileri; Calculus II (Genel Matematik II) ... Haftalar: Türevin uygulamaları, birinci ve ikinci …, Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Volume Disk Method, Washer Method, Volume Shell Method and more., Math Calculus 2 Unit 6: Series 2,000 possible mastery points Mastered Proficient Familiar Attempted Not started Quiz Unit test Convergent and divergent infinite series Learn Convergent and divergent sequences Worked example: sequence convergence/divergence Partial sums intro Partial sums: formula for nth term from partial sum, Integration Techniques - In this chapter we will look at several integration techniques including Integration by Parts, Integrals Involving Trig Functions, Trig Substitutions and Partial Fractions. We will also look at Improper Integrals including using the Comparison Test for convergence/divergence of improper integrals., Calculus. Find the Derivative - d/dx (d^2y)/ (dx^2) d2y dx2 d 2 y d x 2. Cancel the common factor of d2 d 2 and d d. Tap for more steps... d dx [dy x2] d d x [ d y x 2] Since dy d y is constant with respect to x x, the derivative of dy x2 d y x 2 with respect to x x is dy d dx[ 1 x2] d y d d x [ 1 x 2]. dy d dx [ 1 x2] d y d d x [ 1 x 2], Integration Formulas. The branch of calculus where we study about integrals, accumulation of quantities and the areas under and between curves and their properties is known as Integral Calculus. Here are some formulas by which we can find integral of a function. ∫ adr = ax + C. ∫ 1 xdr = ln|x| + C. ∫ axdx = ex ln a + C. ∫ ln xdx = x ln ..., 2 Answers. Sorted by: 3. You can calculate the area to the right of both curves and left of the y y -axis between y = 0 y = 0 and y = 112 y = 11 2 by integrating the given functions. Then, you can substract the results to get the area. Also, just mirroring the image in x = y x = y or rotating it by a quarter turn may help., If it is convergent find its value. ∫∞ 0 1 x2 dx. In this section we will look at integrals with infinite intervals of integration and integrals with discontinuous integrands in this section. Collectively, they are called improper integrals and as we will see they may or may not have a finite (i.e. not infinite) value., Second order linear differential equations with constant coefficients: ay + by + c = 0. Let P(z) = az2 + bz + c. Solutions are: If P has 2 roots: AeR0x + BeR1 y ...